Kimuhu, Johnson M. Leviticus: The Priestly Laws and Prohibitions from the Perspective of Ancient Near East and Africa. Vol. 115. Studies in Biblical Literature, ed. Hemchand Gossai. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.

This dissertation-now-turned-publication is primarily an in-depth study of the family laws and prohibitions in Leviticus 18. Specifically the study explores the origin and composition of the passage, wonders aloud as to why the author of the passage singled out the Egyptians and the Canaanites for condemnation, and offers an understanding of the laws from the perspective of oral traditions in Africa.
In regard to the origin of the text, Kimuhu considers it rash, and certainly unfruitful, to seek the origin of the prohibitions of chapter 18 in the patriarchal narrative or even in the ancestors of Israel in general. Instead he prefers to envision dependency by the composer of chapter 18 on the Hittite Laws (HL). This is not say that the composer may not have relied on other biblical codes such as the Holiness Code (H) itself, the Covenant Code, or the book of Deuteronomy in general. Nevertheless the composer seems to exhibit greater dependency on HL. As a matter of fact all the laws in HL are found in Lev 18 except the law on father’s union with his daughter and the law of the crime committed by a slave girl.
Concerning the condemnation of the Egyptians and the Canaanites, Kimuhu considers such censure problematic considering that there is little evidence in the ANE that indicates that the prohibited sexual relationships and marriages were practiced outside the royal family (there are cases of half-brother and father-daughter marriages in the Pharaonic times) and the family of deities (in the Ugaritic texts we do not have cases of incest outside the Baal-Anat circles). According to Kimuhu, the only viable explanation for the condemnation is either that the Priestly laws in Leviticus reflect the incestuous practices in the Graeco-Roman periods or that a redactor schooled in the theology of Dtr is responsible for the addition of verses 1-5 which house the condemnation. Both explanations indicate that Kimuhu adopts a late (exilic) date for Lev 18.

Eternal Security (Perseverance) of the Believer

Sometime ago Naomi submitted a two-pronged query: (a) “When a saved person dies sinning or committing a sin, do they [sic] automatically go to hell” (b) “also, what if a saved person commits suicide, does that person go to heaven or hell”? This posting addresses part “a” of the question. Part “b” will be housed in a later posting that we will title: “Mortal Sin,”
The question of whether a saved person can end up in hell would be best approached through the prism of the doctrine of eternal security (or perseverance of the saint or continuance of the saint in salvation). So what is this doctrine about? Which Scriptures seem to support it and which ones seem to negate it (in the sense that they speak of the possibility of losing one’ salvation? Which theological traditions ascribe to it and which ones reject it?

Passages Cited (by Classical Calvinism and Moderate Calvinism) in support of the Doctrine of Eternal Security
Passages that confer believers with “eternal life”
Jn 3:16 [“For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life.]
Jn 5:24 [Very truly, I tell you, anyone who hears my word and believes him who sent me has eternal life, and does not come under judgment, but has passed from death to life.]
Jn 10:27-28 [My sheep hear my voice. I know them, and they follow me. I give them eternal life, and they will never perish.]
Acts 13:48 [When the Gentiles heard this, they were glad and praised the word of the Lord; and as many as had been destined for eternal life became believers]
1 Jn 5:13 [I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God, so that you may know that you have eternal life.]
Passages that declare the believer secure
Jn 10:27-28 [My sheep hear my voice…they will never perish. No one will snatch them out of my hand.]
Passages that speak of the believer’s destiny with certainty
Rom 8:29-30 [For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn within a large family. And those whom he predestined he also called; and those whom he called he also justified; and those whom he justified he also glorified.]
Rom 11:29 [for the gifts and the calling of God are irrevocable]
Phil 1:6 [I am confident of this, that the one who began a good work among you will bring it to completion by the day of Jesus Christ]

Passages Cited (by Reformed Arminianism and Weslayan Arminianism) in denial of the Doctrine of Eternal Security
Passages that raise the possibility of falling away or cite examples of those who fell away
Heb 3:12-13 [Take care, brothers and sisters, that none of you may have an evil, unbelieving heart that turns away from the living God. But exhort one another every day, as long as it is called “today,” so that none of you may be hardened by the deceitfulness of sin.]
Heb 6:4-6 [For it is impossible to restore again to repentance those who have once been enlightened, and have tasted the heavenly gift, and have shared in the Holy Spirit, and have tasted the goodness of the word of God and the powers of the age to come, and then have fallen away, since on their own they are crucifying again the Son of God and are holding him up to contempt.]
1 Tim 5:15 [For some have already turned away to follow Satan]
Passages that attach contingencies to the final outcome of the believer’s future
Matt 24:13 [But the one who endures to the end will be saved]
Jn 15:4, 6 [Abide in me as I abide in you. Just as the branch cannot bear fruit by itself unless it abides in the vine, neither can you unless you abide in me. Whoever does not abide in me is thrown away like a branch and withers; such branches are gathered, thrown into the fire, and burned.]
1 Cor 15:1-2[Now I would remind you, brothers and sisters, of the good news that I proclaimed to you, which you in turn received, in which also you stand, through which also you are being saved, if you hold firmly to the message that I proclaimed to you—unless you have come to believe in vain.]
Heb 3:14 [For we have become partners of Christ, if only we hold our first confidence firm to the end.]
Col 1:21-23[And you who were once estranged and hostile in mind, doing evil deeds, he has now reconciled in his fleshly body through death, so as to present you holy and blameless and irreproachable before him— provided that you continue securely established and steadfast in the faith, without shifting from the hope promised by the gospel that you heard, which has been proclaimed to every creature under heaven]

Back to Naomi’s Question
The question again was: “When a saved person dies sinning or committing a sin, do they [sic] automatically go to hell.” Calvinism will answer in the negative since it not only highlights passages that seem to support the eternal security of the believer, but attempts to explain away those passages that raise the possibility of falling away. For example, classical Calvinism will deny that the persons in view in Hebrews 6 are in fact believer; they are unregenerate, unbelieving children of the covenant. Alternatively moderate Calvinism, while admitting that the persons in Hebrew 6 are indeed believers regard the loss spoken of their not as the loss of salvation, but the loss of rewards.
But even Arminianism will answer the question in the negative as much as teaches the possibility of losing one’s salvation. According to Arminianism, two conditions lead to loss of salvation: (a) Unconfessed sin: This is not sin that is unknown but rather sin that is consciously held without repentance and continued without regret and (b) Apostasy: an intensification of the stage of unconfessed sin. Neither of these conditions are implied in the question posed.

Feel free to post your questions here

… and we will try our ever best to respond in a timely manner.

CRITIQUE OF SOME SELECTED TEACHING OF NAIROBI CHRISTIAN CHURCH (N.C.C) AND BY EXTENSION THE BOSTON CHURCH OF CHRIST (B.C.C) (PART 1)

(This posting is an adaptation of the author’s thesis submitted to the faculty of the Nairobi International School of Theology towards the fulfillment of a degree in Master’s in Divinity)

Introduction

The fight against faulty interpretations of the Holy Scriptures in the form of exposing and excoriating these false teachings has always been and will continue to be the one defensive and therefore noble war that true, biblically grounded Christians will aggressively have to participate in. This is in light of the fact that false teachings neither ended with the apostolic era, nor terminated with the age of the church Fathers; but on the contrary, have persisted on to our contemporary Christian dispensation. Both biblical and traditional history bear witness to the fact that certain saints did not tolerate false teachings, but instead, they chose to clamp down against them in counter-reaction. The Apostle Paul, for instance, waged this war so furiously as is evidenced by the words he wrote to Timothy: Their teaching will spread like gangrene. Among them are Hymenaeus and Philetus, who have wandered away from the truth. They say that the resurrection has already taken place, and they destroy this faith of some (2 Tim. 2:17-18; N.I.V. all references are NIV unless otherwise noted). Similarly, the early Church Fathers, consumed with the zeal to pass on the Christian doctrine untainted, fought against the likes of Arius. It will thus be careless and unrealistic of us to imagine that our contemporary age would be spared from such deceptive teachings. In fact, even as the writer is penning down these words, quick observation reveals that the city of Nairobi has now become a reservoir of false teaching. A specific wave of unbiblical, untruthful, incorrect scriptural exegesis is successfully sweeping with it hundreds of young men and women, who apparently are oblivious and totally blinded to the subtleness of these teachings. Men of God in the past took the responsibility of shielding the biblically ungrounded Christians from the destructive impact of false teaching. All through the ages the “baton of Scriptural defense” has been successfully passed on. The question to us would be this: are we in today’s world willing to take the baton? For the writer of this paper the answer to this question is definitely in the affirmative.

The Background of the Nairobi Christian Church (N.C.C)

The Nairobi Christian Church came into existence in 1985. The church is the first of its kind in Kenya and was planted through the missionary efforts of Mike Taliaferro, the leader of the so called Boston Church of Christ (Kip Mckean, “Revolution through Restoration”, Upside Down, p. 14). This mother church, the B.C.C., is itself a breakaway of the Church of Christ in the United States–a breakaway that was initiated by Kip Mckean in 1975, who was a fresh graduate from the University of Florida. As Mckean himself excitedly states in the church’s journal, On June 1 1979, history was made as some would-be disciples gathered on a Friday night in the living room of Bob and Pat Gempel (this couple are part of the leadership now). Our collective vision was a church where not only the college students were totally committed, but also the teens, singles, marrieds and senior citizens. This was a radical concept not witnessed in any other way or movement in my experience to this day (Ibid, p. 7). And so this particular night witnessed the inception of this B.C.C. which, today, has spread all over the world (Ibid., p. 12). The following outlines how a N.C.C. member would approach and finally absorb a person into the church. Firstly, one would be approached and then a conversation would be elicited. Secondly, during the conversation, it would be brought to one’s attention the name of the church and direction to the meeting place. Thirdly, when one arrives, he or she would be bundled up in what is called the “Equipping class”. The very first lesson in this class is geared to convince one that the N.C.C. is the one and only true church. To qualify this claim, various selected teachings from other churches or denominations are discredited, e.g., praying to receive Christ, speaking in tongues etc. The goal is to render the N.C.C. unique. As is pointed out by Larson, this is just one of the many psychological forms of “cult coercion”. Exclusivity, which is what this is, has been defined by Larson as the perpetration of the idea that “those outside are viewed as spiritually inferior, creating, therefore, an exclusive and self-righteous ‘we’ versus ‘they’ attitude” (Larson, Cults, p. 17). Fourthly, one is paired up with a discipler whose role is to introduce and teach the various lessons that constitute the Church’s teachings. Throughout this “discipling”, a “warning gong is continuously sounded”–a warning against questioning the teachings and interpretations of the discipler. Quoting Cannon on this, he says: Essentially, the framework of the B.C.C. discipling system is one of total submission to authority. Any new convert must submit himself to one who is “more mature in the Lord”, that is, one who has been in the movement longer than the convert. The submission is absolute. (Cannon, “Has Mind Control Come to Beantown?”, Personal Freedom Outreach, p. 5). This is what Larson would call “unquestioning submission”, which in his words is “the acceptance…achieved by discouraging any questions…that may challenge what the leader(s) propagate” (Ibid., p. 18). The danger in having a mortal being as your absolute is that your trust shifts absolute word of God to a fallible being. Fifthly, the new disciple is encouraged to “fish out” for others, which basically means to invite people to the church. Finally, if the disciple exhibits exceptional commitment, then he or she is baptized, there upon one becomes a born again Christian and begins to play the role of a discipler. And so the circle continues. With this brief background, let us now commence our evaluation of the N.C.C. teachings.

Presentations and Biblical Critique of the N.C.C.’s Teaching on Water Baptism Based Upon the Interpretation of Acts 2:38

Presentation of the Teaching Water baptism occupies a very central place in the teachings of the Nairobi Christian Church. Water baptism as taught by N.C.C. is essential for one’s salvation. It should be understood that salvation here is understood not in the wider context as the overall long-term working of God in a believer’s life encompassing the beginning of one’s salvation, the continuity of it also known as progressive salvation, and its culmination (which is glorification). Rather the salvation that is talked of here is limited to its initial commencement which constitutes regeneration, forgiveness of sins, justification, propitiation, redemption and adoption. As such, the N.C.C. teaches that no one can claim to have experienced regeneration, forgiveness of sin or even justification apart from water baptism. But the red flag question we should ask here is this: “Is water baptism essential for justification or even the forgiveness of sin?” The N.C.C. would answer this question in the affirmative especially in regard to the essence of water baptism for the forgiveness of sins. This is based upon their interpretation of Acts 2:38 which says: “Peter replied, ‘repent and be baptized, everyone of you in the name of Jesus Christ eis the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit‘ (Acts 2:38, N.I.V.).

The Biblical Critique of this Teaching

At face value, it would seem like Acts 2:38 does indeed suggest that without water baptism there is no forgiveness of sins. However, a brief exegesis would reveal to us that the building up of a doctrine based on this face value observation is risky business. One of the great determinants in understanding Peter’s reply as given in Acts 2:38 would be to establish the correct and accurate interpretation of the prepositional phrase: eis the forgiveness of your sins. It is true that one of the many uses of eis is to introduce purpose (Greenlee, J. Harold, A Concise Exegetical Grammar of New Testament Greek p. 36.) A good example of this usage is in Mt. 26:28 (This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many eis the forgiveness of sins) where the Lord Jesus Christ is explaining the purpose for the outpouring of His blood which was to take place at the crucifixion. The only logical explanation of the meaning of the as it is used in the prepositional phrase “eis the forgiveness of sins” is “purpose”. The Lord’s blood was to be shed for the forgiveness of our sins, i.e., for the purpose of our forgiveness (or in order that our sins may be forgiven), (Robertson, Grammar, p. 228). However, it is not true that “purpose” is the only possible meaning of the preposition eis in the context of Acts 2:38. The other possible rendering would be “causal” or “in response”. According to Robertson’s argument, the causal usage is just as good a function as it is for aim or purpose. (Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament 3:35 p. 35). A typical causal usage is seen in Mt. 10:41,42 where it reads: Anyone who receives a prophet will receive a prophet’s reward and anyone who receives a righteous man eis he is a righteous man will receive a righteous man’s reward. And if anyone gives a cup of cold water to one of these little ones I tell you the truth, he will certainly not lose his reward. Here the interpretation cannot be purpose or aim, but rather basis or ground. As such the good reception and deeds are honored here only because they are on the basis of the name of prophet, the righteous man, and the disciple i.e., because one is a prophet, a righteous man or a disciple. (Ibid). Another similar usage is seen in Mt. 12:41 (The men of Nineveh will stand up at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for they repented eis the preaching of Jonah, an now one greater than Jonah is here) where Matthew seems to suggest that the men of Ninevah repented , meaning because of the preaching of Jonah (Robertson, Grammar, p. 229). We observe then that the meaning of the preposition eis could well vacillate between “purpose” and “causal.” In other words, Acts 2:38 could be interpreted in two ways. It could either read, “Peter replied, ‘Repent and be baptized, everyone of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins….’ or it could read, “Peter replied, ‘Repent and be baptized, everyone of you in the name of Jesus Christ because your sins have been forgiven ….’” The translation that one chooses here depends to a very great extent on one’s understanding of the concept of “baptism” and “repentance.” An exegesis of these two terms is helpful here in order to give us the overall context of Acts 2:38 upon which the possible interpretation of the preposition may be determined. We will commence with the verb “repent.” which is the first word in Peter’s answer to the receptive audience. In exegeting it we’ll first do a grammatical exegesis and then an etymological one.

Grammatical exegesis: The parsing of this verb is 2nd person, plural, active voice, aorist tense and imperative mood. Of special significance would be the determination of the exact tense and mood usage. In regard to the mood usage, the various usages of the imperative mood according to Robertson are the imperatives of command, hortatory, prohibition, entreaty, permission and condition (Robertson, New Short Grammar, p. 312). It is highly impossible that the usage would be prohibitive. According to Nunn, prohibition is expressed in Greek by the aorist subjunctive not imperative as is the case here (Nunn, H. P. V. A Short Syntax of New Testament Greek, p. 84). Context-wise we should be able to eliminate all the other usages except the entreaty use. There is nothing in this context to suggest a conditional, permissible, or even hortatory usage. It is highly improbable that the command usage would be in view either. Thus, the most probable usage of the mood here would be that of command. In regard to the tense usage, the general usage of the aorist in combination with the viewpoint of its imperative is “ingressive”, where ingressive here means that the action is regarded from the initiation (Goetchius, The Language of the New Testament, p. 331). However, of the various specific uses of the aorist, the most probable ones in this context, would be the constantive usage. As is pointed out by Nunn, the aorist imperative, in accordance with the use of the aorist tense in moods other than indicative, denotes that the action is regarded as a single event. (Nunn, A Short Syntax of the New Testament, p. 83.) The writer would therefore choose to adopt the constantive usage which views the action in its entirety with no reference to its beginning or end (Brooks, Syntax of New Testament Greek p. 90). So far we have dwelt on the specifics of the mood and the tense respectively. But what really is the significance of the combination between an aorist tense and imperative mood? As revealed by Moulton, In the imperative…the conciseness of the aorist makes it a decidedly more sharp and urgent form (Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, p. 173). In other words the combinations of the imperative mood and the aorist tense supply a tone of urgency. Indeed this tone of urgency implicit in this verb has been accurately captured by Robertson: “Turn right about and do it now. You crucified this Jesus. Now crown Him in your hearts as Lord and Christ. This first” (Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament, p. 34). Conclusively, then, we can say that this verb brings with it a tone of urgency and also calls for a once and for all response.

Etymological usage: In secular Greek, the lexical form of this word carries, for the most part, the idea of superficial change of mind so much so that as has been pointed out by Behm, “the Hellenistic philosophers used it predominantly in the intellectual sense” (Behm, TDNT, 4:980,). However, the word as it appears in the LXX carries with it a deeper meaning than the meaning reflected in secular Greek. It is true that this word would in certain instances carry the secular Greek intellectual meaning of “change of mind and intentions” (cf. Isa 15:29; Jer 18:8; Amos 7:3,6). But it is really in the LXX that a meaning other than the above has been projected. Behm, having observed that the Hebrew word for metanoew in the LXX is used synonymously with the Hebrew word nhm, which has the idea of religious and moral conversion, conclusively asserts metanoew in regards to in this way: it refers not merely to the individual case of penitent change of mind but to an intention in total attitude, to the relations to God which embraces the whole life, to a change in nature which results from a reorientation brought about by God (Ibid., p. 989). As such the new and deeper meaning that is inherent in the LXX usage of this verb and which is totally alien to the secular Greek usage is that repentance assumes more than just an intellectual change of mind. Repentance connotes moral change. Studying the New Testament usage of this word, which according to Behm appears twenty three times in the New Testament, carries with it not only the mental Greek meaning but also the moral LXX idea. Commenting on the latter usage of this word, Kromminga has this to say: metanoew can be said to denote an inward change of mind, affections, convictions, and commitment rooted in the fear of God and sorrow for offenses committed against Him (Kromminga, G.C. “Repentance”, EDT). There are few instances in the New Testament where the word could connote the intellectual meaning. According to Behm, the Greek sense of metanoew is most likely found in Lk. 17:3f where it denotes regret for a fault against one’s brother and in 2 Cor. 7:9f where it suggests remorse. Elsewhere the only possible rendering would be “to convert” (Behn, ” , etc.,” TONT, 4:999). If Behm’s above assertion regarding the scarcity of the Greek secular usage of this word in the New Testament were true, we would be justified in claiming the second and deeper meaning of metanoew as what is implied in Acts 2:38. This is not without the support of certain commentators on the Book of Acts. Greene defines this word in this way: Repentance is such hatred for sin that the penitent one forsakes sin and turns about face to walk with God (Greene, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 181). In other words, true repentance begets accompanying action. Similarly, Gloag commenting on the same verse lays the following emphasis: ” metanoew is not to be restricted to mere sorrow for sin, i.e., repentance in the sense of contrition; but it imports a change of views, mind and purpose, and a consequent change of disposition, i.e., repentance is the sense of conversion (Gloag, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 109). The same emphasis regarding the usage of metanoew is echoed by Kearsay in the following words: It describes a radical change in this individual disposition…The transformation implied, therefore, is not a matter merely of mental judgment, but of new religion and moral attitudes (Kearsay, “Repentance”, NDT). A pertinent question to ask ourselves at this point is this: “What is the link between the faith and repentance?” According to Murray, faith and repentance are two sides of the same coin and therefore cannot be separated. Faith dissociated from repentance would not be faith that is unto salvation…it is vain to ask which is prior, faith or repentance? They are always concurrently in exercise and are mutually conditioning. Faith is directed to Christ for salvation from sin unto holiness and life. But this involves hatred of sin and turning from sin unto God which is repentance. (Murray, J., “Repentance”, NBD) Implicit then in the concept of repentance is faith. It is for this reason that Hearsay warns that it would be a serious misrepresentation of Scripture to separate repentance from faith, as if the former were in any sense a conditioning of receiving the latter (Hearsay, R. “Repentance”, NDT). This is clear from the fact that apostolic preaching sometimes summoned people to repent but on other occasions to believe or have faith. A good example of the former is in Acts 17:30 where Paul told the Athenians that God “commands people everywhere to repent”. A good example of the latter is in Acts 16:31 where Paul, responding to the inquiry of the Philippian jailor, says, “Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ and you will be saved”. Furthermore, Wells’ assertion that no one word captures all that becoming a Christian means does underscore the fact that faith is not to be seen apart from repentance just because it is not mentioned in Acts 2:38 (Wells, David F. Turning to God, p. 33). Since there is consensus that faith is implied in Acts 2:38, then it need not be erroneous to assume a causal understanding of the preposition eis for the following reason: in scripture, forgiveness of sin follows upon either repentance or faith. “Repent, then, and turn to God, so that your sins may be wiped out…” (Acts 3:19) “All the prophets testify about him that everyone who believes in him receives forgiveness of sins through his name (Acts 10:43). Therefore, it is still within scriptural allowance to assume that the forgiveness of sins in Acts 2:38 is based upon repentance, which cannot be dissociated from faith or belief, and does not necessarily require water baptism. But what then is the significance of water baptism in this verse. To adequately answer this question we would first have to do an exegesis of the phrase “be baptized” as it is used in Acts 2:38.

The verb is parsed aorist, passive, 3rd person, singular and imperative mood. Here we again observe the combination of the imperative mood and the aorist tense to designate urgency. The significance of the passive voice is that it “presents the subject as acted upon, receiving the action, rather than doing the action” (Robertson, New Short Grammar of the Greek Testament, p. 291). Of significance here would be the change in the number and pronoun for this verb compared to the preceding verb “repent”. The change is from 2nd person, plural for the first verb to 3rd person singular for the verb. The implication of this grammatical shift has been suggested by Robertson. The change marks a break in the thought here…The first thing to do is make a radical change of heart…Then let each one be baptized after the change (Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament,p. 34). The significance of baptism here then would be an outward testimony of an inward change. This baptism is to executed “in the name of Jesus,” meaning that it should be performed upon the name of Jesus Christ or on the ground of the name so that this name, as the contents of the faith and confession becomes the ground upon which the becoming baptized rests (Vincent, Word Studies of the New Testament, p. 149).

Conclusion

In light of our findings in regards to the efficacy of water baptism, it would be highly dogmatic for the N.C.C. to claim that baptism is necessary for salvation and that there is no salvation (i.e., forgiveness of sins, justification, etc.) apart from water baptism. As F. F. Bruce comments “such an idea is contrary to the tenor of the whole New Testament” (Bruce, Answer to Questions, p. 76). It is faith union with Christ that saves.

Milton-Edwards, Beverley, and Peter Hinchcliffe. Conflicts in the Middle East since 1945. 3d ed. The Making of the Contemporary World, ed. Eric J. Evans and Ruth Henig. New York: Routledge, 2008.

At this moment and time, the news outlets have it that Israel has commenced its ground assault against Gaza. To all who are curious about the genesis of the Israeli-Palestinian hostilities, here is a book that will offer you a detailed historical account of not just the Palestinian conflicts, but those of the whole Middle East which is loosely defined to include Egypt.
The book is divided into ten chapters. Chapter one addresses the history of the wider Arab-Israel conflict—a conflict that was triggered by a surge of immigration of Israelis back to Palestine and the false promises of the Balfour Declaration to the Arab leadership (that Arabs would control much of the region following the defeat of the Ottomans) and the Zionists (that the British would support the establishment of a Jewish national home in Arab Palestine). Five wars are recounted: (a) the 1948 war that pitted a newly constituted state of Israel against the triumvirate of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria (backed by forces from Lebanon and Iraq); (b) the 1967 war that saw Israel expand its territorial jurisdiction to include the Gaza strip (formerly under Egyptian control), the West Bank (formerly under Jordanian control) and the Golan Heights (formerly under Syria); (c) 1973 war involving Israel and Egypt; (d) 1982 invasion of Lebanon by Israel for the purposes of routing out PLO; and (e) 2006 war between Israel and Hizballah. Chapter two zeroes in on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict with special attention to the two intifadas of 1987 and 2000 respectively. Chapter three sheds light on the role of Russia and the US in the Middle East conflicts. Jihad is the subject of chapter four. The next four chapters address conflicts that featured middle- eastern countries and peoples other than Israel and Palestine. Chapter five concerns itself with Lebanon’s sectarian conflict. Chapter six is about the ethnic conflict involving the Kurds. The Iran-Iraq war is described in chapter seven. Chapter eight covers Iraq’s invasion of Kuwaiti. The last two chapters dedicate themselves to the failed peacemaking attempts and America’s attack of Iraq.

Boeckelman, Martin Dupuis and Keith. Barack Obama, the New Face of American Politics. Women and Minorities in Politics, ed. Melody Rose. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2008.

The first in a series that purposes to explore the impact of minorities’ and women’s involvement in American politics, this volume rightly features an individual who, even by the time of the book’s publication on December 27th 2007 ,which was way before the end of the 08’ democratic primaries, already showed promise as the candidate to beat at both the party nomination and the general election level.
Decidedly biographical the books describes and explores the political life of now presidential-elect Barack Obama from the time of his successfully run for the state senate in 1996 (chapter one), through his drama-filled campaign for the US Senate seat vacated by Senator Peter Fitzgerald (chapters two, three, four, five and six) and subsequent decisive victory over Alan Keyes (chapter seven), to his announcement of candidacy for the President of the United States on February 12, 2007, in front of the old state capital in Springfield, Illinois.
The book will impress and benefit anyone who is interested in tracing or re-reading President Obama’s life story and accomplishments. It also offers insights into Obama’s thinking and philosophy on issues such as the role of government and the meaning of the American Dream through its analysis of his speeches and its discussion of his voting pattern in the senate.

Spiritual Gifts (Charismata)

Introduction
George Marsh asks a four-fold question regarding spiritual gifts: (a) what are these spiritual gifts? (b) How does one receive them? (c) Are they for all believers or some (especially the gift of speaking in tongues)? (d) How can one identify his or her gift?

What are the Various Spiritual Gifts?
Altogether the Epistles makes mention of twenty one (21) spiritual gifts. In no particular order here they are:
Prophet, Prophetess or Prophecy (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 12:10; 12:28, 29; 13: 2, 8; 14:1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 22; Eph 4:11)
Whether predictive or non-predictive, the goal of a prophetic utterance as outlined in 1 Cor 14 is primarily to instruct, strengthen, encourage, and to comfort the congregation (vv. 3, 31). Furthermore the utterance is subject to evaluation (v. 29). If predictive, failure of the utterance to come to fruition renders the utterer fake (Deut 18:22).
Evangelist (Eph 4:11)

If you have ever wondered what the portrait of an Evangelist looks like, look at Philip, one of the seven deacons in the Book of Acts and to whose name is tied to the label “Evangelist (Acts 21:8). He not only engaged the masses with his proclamation of the good news, but initiated evangelistic conversation one-on-one (Acts 8).

Pastor (Eph 4:11)

The word for Pastor in the Greek is literally a “shepherd.” In other words what a shepherd is to sheep, a pastor is to his flock. Like a shepherd the pastor displays care, offers guidance (cf. John 10:3), extends protection/security (cf., Matt 9:36), puts his life on the line for his sheep (John 10:11).

Service (Rom 12:7)

The word for service is a variation of the word “deacon.” As is well known deacons in the book of Acts offered, not received, services. They were players, not spectators, when it came to serving the church. The gift of service therefore has to do with being a participant in the process of meeting the needs of the saints/church (cf. 1 Cor 16:15; 2 Cor 9:1, 13).

Teaching (Rom 12:7)

Prophets speak the words which God reveals to them while teachers engage in the passing on of the truth of the gospel which is already the revealed truth.

Encouraging

The encourager comes in handy in challenging, low moments, in times of distress and affliction. The goal of encouragement is to inspire and to uplift. (Rom 12:8, cf. Acts 14:22; 15:32; 16:40; 20:1, 2; 1 Cor 14:31; 2 Cor 7:13; Eph 6:22; Col 2:2; 4:8; 1 Thes 2:12; 3:2, 7; 4:18; 5:11, 14; 2 Thes 2:17; 2 Tim 4:2; Titus 1:9; 2:6, 15; Heb 3:13; 10:25; 1 Pet 5:12)

Contributing to the Needs of Others

This has to do with a person sharing of what he or she owns with a needy party (Rom 12:8). This kind of sharing is mentioned at least three other times in the New Testament. The person with two tunics is urged to share with one without (Luke 3:11). As evident that the old sinful self has been shed off as a result of spiritual conversions, a thief-turned-believer is challenged to instead earn a living and share the fruit of his/her labor with those in need (Eph 4:28).

Helping Others
The single reference of the noun translated in our English Bible as “helping others” limits our discussion on this gift (1 Cor 12:28).
Leadership
This gift has in mind those who preside over, manager over, make administrative decisions over the affairs of the church (Rom 12:8, cf 1 Thes 5:12; 1 Tim 3:4, 5, 12; 5:17).
Administration
As is the case with the gift of “helping others,” the single reference of the noun translated in our English Bible as “administration” limits our discussion on this gift (1 Cor 12:28).
Showing Mercy
Most likely the gift denotes all sorts of works of mercy. This may include taking care of the sick or disadvantaged (Rom 12:8).
Celibacy
In the context of 1 Cor 7 where Paul is discussing sexual fulfillment and abstinence, it may be that the gift here should be best understood not so much as singleness but continence, i.e., the ability to refrain from sexual intercourse.
Message of Wisdom and Knowledge
These entail insights granted to the mind. They are revelatory in the sense that they include matters granted in some way or another by direct revelation (1 Cor 12:28). Granted, on this side of the Canon, the revelations must be subject to biblical scrutiny as is the case with prophetic utterance.
Faith, Healing (1 Cor 12:9), Miraculous powers (1 Cor 12:10)
We are here talking about a high degree of faith in God produced by the Holy Spirit, the effects of which manifested themselves in healings in one and in mighty works in another.
Distinguishing Between Spirits (1 Cor 12:10)
This refers to the ability to identify the source of the prophetic utterance. The ability may also include interpretation and the weighing of the prophetic content.
Speaking in different tongues and Interpretation of tongues (1 Cor 12:10f)
According to 1 Cor 14 tongues are God-directed (not audience-directed), incomprehensible to the listening ear, strictly for the edification of the speaker. For this reason, they require interpretation if they are to benefit the audience.
Apostles (1 Cor 12:28, 29; Eph 4:11)

How Can one Identify His/Her Gift
Even those who propose the use of questionnaires as a way of determining spiritual gifts are quick to point out that the questionnaires simply confirm an awareness of one’s spiritual gift. The awareness comes about through inner conviction and the testimony of outside observers.

Tithing: Is it Applicable to the Church Today?

Introduction

This posting has been prompted by the question of one of our readers? Mary asks:

”I was told by some people that they can’t pay tithe because it is not mentioned in the New Testament, i.e., it is part of the Old Testament Law and not meant for “grace” people like us. I can’t remember seeing it myself in the N.T.Is that the case? If so how do you respond to that?

First of all Mary, tithing is mentioned in the New Testament. Even then the question of its applicability still holds since in all the instances that tithing is mentioned in both Testaments it appears to be a Jewish/Old Testament practice that may therefore not carry forward to the church today.
In answering the question we will first of all define tithing, then look at how it is discussed in both the New and the Old Testaments, and finally determine whether the scarce mention of tithing in the New Testament implies that the practice is irrelevant today.

Definition of “Tithe”

That the term tithe translates to tenth or ten percent makes sense if we are aware that, according to the Merrian-Webster’s dictionary, the word tithe is traceable to the old English word teogotha which means tenth. Furthermore both the Hebrew (maasar) and Greek (dekate) words that are rendered tithe by our English Bible carry within them the word ten. The term for ten is deka in Greek and asar in Hebrew.
The meaning of tithe aside, how is tithe or tithing discussed in both the Old and New Testaments?

Tithing in the Old Testament

Mention of Incidences of tithing
a) Gen 14:20
A war involving Sodom, the adopted home of Lot, results in the capture of Lot among others. When word about Lot’s capture reaches his uncle Abram, Abram mobilizes an operation dubbed “rescue Lot.” With the mission accomplished, Abram returns home and is met by Melchisedek. It is during this encounter that Abram offers a tithe.
b) Gen 28:20-22
Jacob working under the instruction of his mother Rebekkah succeeds in stealing the blessings that rightly belonged to Esau. Isaac is deceived into granting deathbed blessings to Jacob instead of Esau. When Esau discovers his loss, he vows revenge. Naturally Jacob, the target of the vendetta, opts to flee to Laban’s den in Haran. Since Haran was a distance away, Jacob stopped to catch some sleep. While asleep, he experiences a dream. He wakes up and utters a vow: he will tithe a tenth form what God gives to him.

Divine Regulations concerning tithe or tithing
(a) Lev 27:30-32: The tithe belongs to the Lord
(b) Num 18:21: The tithes are meant for the Levites in exchange for their temple service
(c) Deut 12:6; 14:28: Tithes are to be brought to God’s dwelling place

The Practice of Tithing Falls by the Wayside and then is Revived
(a) 2 Chron 31
At the end of 2 Chron 28 we are told that King Ahaz suspended all temple operations by shutting the temple down. When Hezekiah ascended the throne, he reversed all these. He re-consecrated the temple and its staff in 29:3-19. He calls for the observation of the Passover in chap. 30. What else does he reinstall? Tithing (2 Chron 31:11)
(b) Neh 10:37; 13:12
Chapter 10 is an Ezra-led declaration of the people’s commitment to live by the law. Part of the commitment is the reinstatement of tithing.

Withholding the tithes equated with robbery; bringing the tithe tied to abundant blessings
Mal 3:8-11: “Will a man rob God? Yet you rob me. “But you ask, ‘How do we rob you?’ “In tithes and offerings. You are under a curse — the whole nation of you — because you are robbing me. Bring the whole tithe into the storehouse, that there may be food in my house. Test me in this,” says the LORD Almighty, “and see if I will not throw open the floodgates of heaven and pour out so much blessing that you will not have room enough for it. I will prevent pests from devouring your crops, and the vines in your fields will not cast their fruit,” says the LORD Almighty.

Tithing in the New Testament

Mention of an Incident of tithing
Luke 18:12: The Pharisee stood up and prayed about himself: ‘God, I thank you that I am not like other men — robbers, evildoers, adulterers — or even like this tax collector. I fast twice a week and give a tenth of all I get.’

Jesus does not fault the Pharisees and teachers of Law for Practicing Tithing
What he faults them for is their neglect of justice and the love of God (cf. Matt 23:23)

Is Tithing Applicable Today

Even though tithing is mentioned only a handful of times in the New Testament, does it mean that it is therefore no longer applicable today?
First of all, there is no evidence that the Scriptures prohibit the continuation of the practice. Jesus made mention of the practice without condemning or rendering it abolete. At the same time, it ought to give us pause that, beyond the three references in the Gospels, the word tithe or tithing is never again mentioned in the New Testament. References to tithing during the church age appear not in the New Testament but later on in the writings of the church fathers (e.g., Constitution of the Holy Apostles [325AD]:“wherefore you ought to love the bishop as your father, and fear him as your king and honor him …giving to him your … tithes) or in decrees by church councils (e.g., the council of Trent [1550]: “The payment of tithes is due to God, and they who refuse to pay them or hinder those who give them usurp the property of another…they who either withhold or hinder them shall be excommunicated..”)
Secondly, even though tithing is never again mentioned in the New Testament after the Gospels, the principle of tithing in the sense of the people of God catering for the needs and upkeep of the minister is cited over and over again in the Epistles and is certainly relevant and applicable today. First Corinthians 9: 13-14 is one such citation: Don’t you know that those who work in the temple get their food from the temple, and those who serve at the altar share in what is offered on the altar? In the same way, the Lord has commanded that those who preach the gospel should receive their living from the gospel.
Thirdly, the emphasis in the Epistles when it comes to supplying the needs of the minister is not on percentage seeing that the word tithe or tithing is never mentioned there. The emphasis is on individual-motivated, generous, cheerful, voluntary giving (1 Cor 9:7).

Dowry (or bridewealth) and the Bible

The Practice of Paying Dowry in Ancient Babylon, Ancient Egypt, the Bible. and within the Afric(Keny)an Context

In Ancient Babylon

(a) Law of Ur-Nammu (2112-2095 B.C)

–#12
If a prospective son-in-law entered the house of his prospective father-in-law, but his father-in-law later gave his daughter to another man, he (the father-in-law) shall return to him two-fold the amount of bridal presents he had brought

(b) Law of Eshnunna (2000 B.C)

–#17
Should the son of a man bring bride-money to the house of the his father-in-law–if one of the two deceases, the money shall revert to its owner

(c) Code of Hammurabi (1728-1686 B.C)

–# 137
If a seignior has made up his mind to divorce a lay priestess, who bore him
children, or a hierodule who provided him with chiildren, they shall return
her dowry to that woman and also give her half of the field, orchard and goods that she may rear her children…
–#138
If a seignoir wishes to divorce his wife who did not bear him children, he shall five her money to the full amount of her marriage-price and he shall also make good to her the dowry which she brought from her father’s house and then he may divorce her
–#159
If a seignior. who had the betrothal-gift brought to the house of his prospective father-in-law and paid the marriage-price, has then fallen in love with another woman and has said to his prospective father-in-law, “I will not marry your daughter,” the father of the daughter shall keep whatever was brought to him
–#162
If, when a seignior acquired a wife, she bore him children and that woman has then gone to her fate, her father may not lay claim to her dowry, since her dowry belongs to her children

In Ancient Egypt

A Marriage Contract of a former slave as revealed in Aramaic Papyrus 15 from Elephantine (dated 441 B.C.)

–Date of the Contract

In Tishri, which is the 6th day of the month of Epiph of Artaxerxes the King

–Identification of Contracting Parties

Askor, son of TSHR, builder of the king said to Makhsir the Aramean of Syene of the detachment of Warizath, saying “I have come to your house to take to myself your daughter (Mipthtahiah) for wifehood (or as a wife)

–Formal agreement of marriage and payment of dowry and possession brought in by the bride

She is my wife and I am her husband from this day and for ever, I give to you the bride-price of your daughter Miphtahiah , the sum of 5 shekels , royal weight. It has been received by you and your heart is content therewith. I have caused to come up to bring to your daughter Miphtahiah into her hand of the cost of furniture 1 karash 2 shekels of royal weight of the standard of 2R to 10. I have delivered to her into her hand 1 woolen robe, new, striped dyed on both sides, (whose) length was 8 cubits by 5, worth the sum of 2 kerashin 8 shekels royal weight; 1 closely-woven (shawl) new, (whose) length was 8 cubits by 5 ,worththe sum of 8 shekels of royal weight; another woolen robe, finely woven (whose) length was 6 cubits by 4, worth the sum of 7 shekels; 1 mirror of bronze, worth
the sum of shekel 2R; 1 tray of bronze, worth the sum of 1 shekel 2R; 2 cups of bronze worth the sum of 2 shekels; 1 bowl of bronze, worth the sum of 2R; total money and value of goods being the sum of 6 kerashin 5 shekels 20 halurin (=half shekel) of the standard of 2 R to 10, royal weight I have received, and my heart is content therewith, 1 couch of reeds with 4 supports(?) of stone; 1 pk of slk; 2 ladles, holding (?) 8 h; 1 ms’n knife (?); 1 cosmetic box of ivory, new. …

–Witnesses to contract

Nathan b. Ananiah wrote this deed (or contract) at the direction (literally “according to the mouth”) of Ashor and the witnesses hereto

Penuliah b. Jezaniah. ….iah b. Uriah (?) Menahem b. Zaccur witnesses, Reibel(?) b…..

In the Bible

(a) The Genesis 24 story of Abraham’s chief servant taking a trip in search of a wife for Abraham’s son, Isaac (see especially verse 10 [Then the servant took ten of his master’s camels and left, taking with him all kinds of good things from his master. He set out for Aram Naharaim and made his way to the town of Nahor], 22 [When the camels had finished drinking, the man took out a gold nose ring weighing a beka and two gold bracelets weighing ten shekels], and 53 [Then the servant brought out gold and silver jewelry and articles of clothing and gave them to Rebekah; he also gave costly gifts to her brother and to her mother])

(b) The story of Jacob in Gen 29, especially verse 18 (Jacob was in love with Rachel and said, “I’ll work for you seven years in return for your younger daughter Rachel” ) and 20 (So Jacob served seven years to get Rachel, but they seemed like only a few days to him because of his love for her)

(c) Hamor requests Jacob’s sons for Dinah as a wife for his son Shechem in Gen 34:12 (Make the price for the bride and the gift I am to bring as great as you like, and I’ll pay whatever you ask me. Only give me the girl as my wife.”)

(d) Exod 22: 16, 17 (“If a man seduces a virgin who is not pledged to be married and sleeps with her, he must pay the bride-price, and she shall be his wife. If her father absolutely refuses to give her to him, he must still pay the bride-price for virgins)

(e) Saul sets the bride price for David to marry his daughter Michal in 1 Sam 18:25 (Saul replied, “Say to David, ‘The king wants no other price for the bride than a hundred Philistine foreskins, to take revenge on his enemies.’” Saul’s plan was to have David fall by the hands of the Philistines)

Within the Afric(Keny)an Context

There are four types of marriages recognized by the republic of Kenya:

(a) Hindu marriage

–allows polygamy

(b) Islamic marriage

-allows plural marriages up to 4 wives

(c) customary marriage

–bridewealth (or part of it) would have to be paid

–required ceremonies have to be performed

–the parties involved have to demonstrate capacity to marry, meaning, the man must not be married under the law that governs monogamous marriages; the woman must not be already married to another man; they should have reached puberty, they should be free of diseases like leprosy or syphilis; they should be mentally sound or sane; each must not be within the prohibited degrees of conguinity and affinity; each must give consent to the marriage; and the parents of each must give consent to marriage

(d) civil/English/Christian marriage

–marriage ceremony has to be performed by an authorized person
–the ceremony has to be performed in a place of worship or in a building which is legally registered for such an activity
–there should be witnesses to the ceremony

–the parties involved must give consent to the marriage

–Notice of intention to marry must be published prior to the marriage
–the parties involved have to demonstrate capacity to marry

Of the four, only one requires the payment of dowry, viz., customary marriage.

Implications

Since the payment of dowry is not prohibited by the Scriptures and since it is a requirement in as far as customary marriage is concerned, it is necessary that an individual who chooses customary marriage pay the dowry. Otherwise the Kenyan society will not consider the marriage valid.

The Blessing of Africa: The Bible and African Christianity, by Keith Augustus Burton, InterVarsity Press, 2007

The hallmark of this book is two-fold: (a) its redefinition of what territorially constitutes “biblical Africa” and (b) its identification of Put with sub-Saharan Africa. Capitalizing on the tendency to equate Ham(ites) with Africa(ns) as evidenced by the common misconception that Noah’s curse targeted Ham and thus the Africans, the author proposes that his readers consider the equation of “biblical Africa” with the “land of Ham.” Understood as such, “biblical Africa” would therefore encompass all the territories traditionally associated with the descendants of Ham as reflected in the “Table of Nations.” These regions include Saudi Arabia (associated with Seba, Sabteca, Sabtah, Dedan and Havilah), Yemen (associated with Sheba and Raamah), Iraq (associated with Babylon, Erech, Akkad, Calneh, Assyria), Egypt/Sudan (associated with Misrayim), Ethiopia (associated with with Cush), Libya (associated with the Lehabites, Naphtuhites, Pathrusites), Crete (associated with Caphtorites), Israel/Palestine (associated with Canaan), Lebanon (associated with Sidon, Hivites, Arkites), Turkey (associated with Hittites), Jordan (associated with Amorites), and Syria (associated with Arvadites). In other words, an equation of “biblical Africa” with the “land of Ham” expands the definition of what encompasses Africa and who constitutes an African to include not just the continent of Africa and its dwellers, but parts of the Middle East and their respective citizens.
Having argued for a broader definition of “biblical Africa” (part one, chapters 1-4) and catalogued the Africans in the Bible assuming the broader definition (part two, chapters 5-7), the book takes and maintains to the very end a historical slant during which the following historical topics are discussed: (a) the development of Christianity in biblical Africa (part three, chapters 8-10), (b) the growth of Islam in biblical Africa (part four, chapters 11-12), (c) the impact of European colonialism on biblical Africa (part five. Chapters 13-15) and (d) the place of the Bible in present-day biblical Africa (part six, chapters 16-18).
Even if the reader does not buy into the author’s attempt to promote a broad definition of what geographically constitutes biblical Africa and consequently who composes an African biblically, this book remains a wonderful resource to students of church history and students of the Bible in general.